Abnormal patterns of electrical oscillatory activity have been repeatedly described in adult ADHD. In particular, the alpha rhythm (8–12 Hz), known to be modulated during attention, has previously been considered as candidate biomarker for ADHD.

In the present study, we asked adult ADHD patients to self-regulate their own alpha rhythm using neurofeedback (NFB), in order to examine the modulation of alpha oscillations on attentional performance and brain plasticity.

Twenty-five adult ADHD patients and 22 healthy controls underwent a 64-channel EEG-recording at resting-state and during a Go/NoGo task, before and after a 30 min-NFB session designed to reduce (desynchronise) the power of the alpha rhythm. Alpha power was compared across conditions and groups, and the effects of NFB were statistically assessed by comparing behavioural and EEG measures pre-to-post NFB.

Firstly, we found that relative alpha power was attenuated in our ADHD cohort compared to control subjects at baseline and across experimental conditions, suggesting a signature of cortical hyperactivation. Both groups demonstrated a significant and targeted reduction of alpha power during NFB.

Interestingly, we observed a post-NFB increase in resting-state alpha (i.e. rebound) in the ADHD group, which restored alpha power towards levels of the normal population. Importantly, the degree of post-NFB alpha normalisation during the Go/NoGo task correlated with individual improvements in motor inhibition (i.e. reduced commission errors) only in the ADHD group.

Overall, our findings offer novel supporting evidence implicating alpha oscillations in inhibitory control, as well as their potential role in the homeostatic regulation of cortical excitatory/inhibitory balance.

Background. Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may suffer from working memory deficits, which can adversely affect their academic performance. Neurofeedback training may enhance working memory and provide a solution to this problem. Aim. To investigate the effect of frequency-neurofeedback on working memory in children with ADHD and to check if the effect is long-lasting. 

Method. Forty-eight children with ADHD (aged 6-12 years) were randomly assigned either to a neurofeedback with training parameters chosen to take into account each child's peak alpha frequency (PAF) or to a waiting list control group. Each trained child underwent 19-channel electroencephalography (EEG). All children had average intelligence and none were receiving treatment, such as medications, for ADHD. Prior to the training, MOXO and n-back tests were performed. Next, neurofeedback training sessions with frequency bands for theta and beta ranges determined using each child's PAF were carried out for 10 weeks. Training parameters were set to increase amplitudes in the low beta range and to decrease amplitudes in the theta and high beta frequency ranges. The n-back test was performed again right after the training and then a year later. 

Results. During the first n-back test, children from both groups responded correctly to more than 43% of the stimuli. During the second test, children from the waiting list responded correctly to an average of 49% of the stimuli, while children who underwent the neurofeedback training were correct, on average, 69% of the time (significant difference, P < .001). During the third n-back test a year later, children from the waiting list responded correctly to 53% of the stimuli, while those who underwent the neurofeedback training responded correctly to nearly 71%. 

Conclusion. This study found a statistically significant improvement in a measure of working memory in children who did 10 to 12 sessions of neurofeedback training with training frequency ranges for theta and beta defined according to each child's PAF. The beneficial effects were still present a year after training.

Cognitive factors are the important correlates of reading disorder and their impairments are established in children with reading disorder. Neurofeedback as an intervention has been reported to be useful in improvement of cognitive deficits. The present study aimed to determine the effectiveness of this treatment on attentiveness and working memory and related electroencephalographic (EEG) changes in children with reading disorder.

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In this single subject study, six children with reading disorder aged 8-10 years old completed twenty 30-minunt sessions of treatment. Continuous performance task, the digit span subscale of the 3(rd) edition of Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III) and quantitative electroencephalography were used to evaluate the changes at pre and post-treatment. The data were evaluated by visual inspection of the graph, the mean percentage improvement and signal detection measures.

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The results showed improvements in attention and working memory.

These significant changes in coherence are possible indications of the connectivity between frontal and posterior association and integration between sensory and motor areas that explain the improvements in attention and working memory.

Phonological theories of dyslexia assume a specific deficit in representation, storage and recall of phonemes. Various brain imaging techniques, including qEEG, point to the importance of a range of areas, predominantly the left hemispheric temporal areas.

This study attempted to reduce reading and spelling deficits in children who are dyslexic by means of neurofeedback training based on neurophysiological differences between the participants and gender and age matched controls. Nineteen children were randomized into an experimental group receiving qEEG based neurofeedback (n = 10) and a control group (n = 9). Both groups also received remedial teaching.

The experimental group improved considerably in spelling (Cohen's d = 3). No improvement was found in reading. An indepth study of the changes in the qEEG power and coherence protocols evidenced no fronto-central changes, which is in line with the absence of reading improvements. A significant increase of alpha coherence was found, which may be an indication that attentional processes account for the improvement in spelling. Consideration of subtypes of dyslexia may refine the results of future studies.

Neurofeedback training (NFT) is an effective intervention in regulating electroencephalogram (EEG) abnormalities leading to improvements in behavioral deficits, which exist in children with reading disabilities.

This single-subject study explores our evaluation of the improvements in the reading ability and phonological awareness deficit, as well as the changes in the EEG in children with reading disabilities as a result of NFT.

Participants were 6 children, aged between 8 and 10 years, who completed twenty 30-minute sessions of NFT and follow-up measurement sessions 2 months subsequent to the completion of the training sessions. The results showed significant improvement in reading and phonological awareness skills. Furthermore, EEG analysis did not show notable changes in the power of the targeted bands (delta, theta, and beta), rather there was normalization of coherence of the theta band at T3-T4, delta band at Cz-Fz, and beta band at Cz-Fz, Cz-Pz, and Cz-C4.

These significant changes in coherence possibly indicate integration of sensory and motor areas that explains the improvements in reading skills and phonological awareness.

In order to study thetreatment of the children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the integrated visual and auditory continuousperformance test (IVA-CPT) was clinically applied to evaluate the effectiveness of electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback training. 

Of all the 60 children with ADHD aged more than 6 years, the effective rate of EEG biofeedback training was 91.6% after40 sessions of EEG biofeedback training. Before and after treatment by EEG biofeedback training, the overall indexes of IVA were significantly improved among predominately inattentive, hyperactive, and combined subtype of children with ADHD (P<0.001). Itwas suggested that EEG biofeedback training was an effective and vital treatment on children with ADHD.

This study replicated T. R. Rossiter and T. J. La Vaque (1995) with a larger sample, expanded age range, and improved statistical analysis. Thirty-one AD/HD patients who chose stimulant drug (MED) treatment were matched with 31 patients who chose a neurofeedback (EEG) treatment program.

EEG patients received either office (n = 14) or home (n = 17) neurofeedback. Stimulants for MED patients were titrated using the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA). EEG (effect size [ES] = 1.01–1.71) and MED (ES = 0.80–1.80) groups showed statistically and clinically significant improvement on TOVA measures of attention, impulse control, processing speed, and variability in attention.

The EEG group demonstrated statistically and clinically significant improvement on behavioral measures (Behavior Assessment System for Children, ES = 1.16–1.78, and Brown Attention Deficit Disorder Scales, ES = 1.59). TOVA gain scores for the EEG and MED groups were not significantly different. More importantly, confidence interval and nonequivalence null hypothesis testing confirmed that the neurofeedback program produced patient outcomes equivalent to those obtained with stimulant drugs. An effectiveness research design places some limitations on the conclusions that can be drawn.

Six middle school students diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder were selected for sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) training with EEG biofeedback. The subjects were evaluated following a 72-hour drug-free period with the WISC-III Digit Span subtest and the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA).

Five of the subjects received 20 sessions of EEG biofeedback and one of the subjects received nine sessions of EEG biofeedback. The subjects were evaluated again following a 72-hour drug-free period. Five of the six subjects improved on their combined Digit Span, TOVA Inattention, and TOVA Impulsivity scores.

These results supported previous findings that EEG biofeedback can be effective in the treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. More importantly, this study demonstrated that EEG biofeedback could be used in an actual school setting. Recommendations for implementing an EEG biofeedbmk program in the schools were provided.

Memory performance has been reported to be associated with electroencephalogram (EEG) alpha activity. This study aimed to improve short term memory performance by individual alpha neurofeedback training (NFT).

With appropriate protocol designed for NFT, the experimental results showed that the participants were able to learn to increase the relative amplitude in individual alpha band during NFT and short term memory performance was significantly enhanced by 20 sessions of NFT.

More importantly, further analysis revealed that the improvement of short term memory was positively correlated with the increase of the relative amplitude in the individual upper alpha band during training. In addition, effective strategies for individual alpha training varied among individuals and the most successful mental strategies were related to positive thinking.

Background:  For children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a reduction of inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity by neurofeedback (NF) has been reported in several studies. But so far, unspecific training effects have not been adequately controlled for and/or studies do not provide sufficient statistical power. To overcome these methodological shortcomings we evaluated the clinical efficacy of neurofeedback in children with ADHD in a multisite randomised controlled study using a computerised attention skills training as a control condition.

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Methods:  102 children with ADHD, aged 8 to 12 years, participated in the study. Children performed either 36 sessions of NF training or a computerised attention skills training within two blocks of about four weeks each (randomised group assignment). The combined NF treatment consisted of one block of theta/beta training and one block of slow cortical potential (SCP) training. Pre-training, intermediate and post-training assessment encompassed several behaviour rating scales (e.g., the German ADHD rating scale, FBB-HKS) completed by parents and teachers. Evaluation (‘placebo’) scales were applied to control for parental expectations and satisfaction with the treatment.

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Results:  For parent and teacher ratings, improvements in the NF group were superior to those of the control group. For the parent-rated FBB-HKS total score (primary outcome measure), the effect size was .60. Comparable effects were obtained for the two NF protocols (theta/beta training, SCP training). Parental attitude towards the treatment did not differ between NF and control group.

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Conclusions:  Superiority of the combined NF training indicates clinical efficacy of NF in children with ADHD. Future studies should further address the specificity of effects and how to optimise the benefit of NF as treatment module for ADHD.

“Advantages to QEEG-Neurotherapy are that it is noninvasive, self-regulated, and has no know side effects, or systematic or pharmacological interactions. It is effective across a wide range of conditions and age groups.”

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Denise Malkowicz, Jolene Ross, James Caunt “Integrative Approaches to Brain Rehabilitation”, Chapter 12, Integrative Rehabilitation, in Integrative Psychiatry, Monti, D. & Beitman, B., (Editors), Weil Integrative Medicine Library, Oxford Press

Attention Deficit Disorder is commonly treated with stimulant medications such as Ritalin

(methylphenidate). However, this medication has short- term effects and numerous undesirable side effects including insomnia and loss of appetite. This study explores using EEG biofeedback, with its minimal side effects and long-term results, as an alternative to pharmacological treatments for ADD.

This report is a 2-year follow-up to a previous study describing positive behavioral changes and a spurt of EEG maturation with theta/alpha neurofeedback (NFB) training in a group of Learning Disabled (LD) children. In a control paired group, treated with placebo, behavioral changes were not observed and the smaller maturational EEG changes observed were easily explained by increased age. Two years later, the EEG maturational lag in Control Group children increased, reaching abnormally high thetaRelative Power values; the absence of positive behavioral changes continued and the neurological diagnosis remained LD. Incontrast, after 2 years EEG maturation did continue in children who belonged to the Experimental Group with previousneurofeedback training; this was accompanied by positive behavioral changes, which were reflected in remission of LDsymptoms.

Phonological theories of dyslexia assume a specific deficit in representation, storage and recall of phonemes. Various brainimaging techniques, including qEEG, point to the importance of a range of areas, predominantly the left hemispheric temporal areas. 

This study attempted to reduce reading and spelling deficits in children who are dyslexic by means of neurofeedback trainingbased on neurophysiological differences between the participants and gender and age matched controls. 

Nineteen children wererandomized into an experimental group receiving qEEG based neurofeedback (n = 10) and a control group (n = 9). Both groups also received remedial teaching. The experimental group improved considerably in spelling (Cohen’s d = 3). No improvement was foundin reading. An in-depth study of the changes in the qEEG power and coherence protocols evidenced no frontal- central changes, which is in line with the absence of reading improvements.

A significant increase of alpha coherence was found, which may be anindication that attentional processes account for the improvement in spelling. Consideration of subtypes of dyslexia may refine theresults of future studies.

Objective: To test a common assumption underlying the clinical use of electroencephalographic (EEG) biofeedback training (neurofeedback), that the modulation ofdiscreet frequency bands is associated with frequency-specific effects.

Specifically, the proposal was assessed that enhancement ofthe low beta components sensorimotor rhythm (SMR: 12 – 15 Hz) and beta1 (15 – 18 Hz) affect different aspects of attentionalprocessing. Methods: Subjects (n 1⁄4 25) were randomly allocated to training with either an SMR or beta1 protocol, or to a non- neurofeedback control group. Subjects were assessed prior and subsequent to the training process on two tests of sustained attention. The neurofeedback participants were also assessed on target P300 event-related potential (ERP) amplitudes in a traditional auditory oddball paradigm. Results: Protocol-specific effects were obtained in that SMR training was associated with increased perceptual sensitivity prime’ (d0 ), and reduced omission errors and reaction time variability. Beta1 training was associated with faster reaction times and increased target P300 amplitude whereas no changes were evident in the control group.Conclusions: 

Neurofeedback training of SMR and beta1 band components led to significant and protocol-specific effects in healthysubjects. The data can be interpreted as indicating a general attention-enhancing effect of SMR training, and an arousal-enhancing effect of beta1 training.

Standardized neurofeedback (NF) protocols have been extensively evaluated in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, such protocols do not account for the large EEG heterogeneity in ADHD.

Thus, individualized approaches have been suggested to improve the clinical outcome. In this direction, an open-label pilot study was designed to evaluate a NF protocol of relative upper alpha power enhancement in fronto-central sites. Upper alpha band was individually determined using the alpha peak frequency as an anchor point. 20 ADHD children underwent 18 training sessions.

Clinical and neurophysiological variables were measured pre- and post-training. EEG was recorded pre- and post-training, and pre- and post-training trials within each session, in both eyes closed resting state and eyes open task-related activity. A power EEG analysis assessed long-term and within-session effects, in the trained parameter and in all the sensors in the (1–30) Hz spectral range.

Learning curves over sessions were assessed as well. Parents rated a clinical improvement in children regarding inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Neurophysiological tests showed an improvement in working memory, concentration and impulsivity (decreased number of commission errors in a continuous performance test). Relative and absolute upper alpha power showed long-term enhancement in task-related activity, and a positive learning curve over sessions.

The analysis of within-session effects showed a power decrease (“rebound” effect) in task-related activity, with no significant effects during training trials. We conclude that the enhancement of the individual upper alpha power is effective in improving several measures of clinical outcome and cognitive performance in ADHD. This is the first NF study evaluating such a protocol in ADHD. A controlled evaluation seems warranted due to the positive results obtained in the current study.

This study reports on the improvements in IQ scores and maintenance of the gains following EEG biofeedback with identical twin girls with mild developmental delay and symptoms suggestive of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Full Scale IQ scores increased22 and 23 points after treatment and were maintained at three follow-up retests over a 52-month period. ADHD symptom checklists completed by their mother showed a similar pattern of improvement and maintenance of gains. 

The extent of improvement is supported by anecdotal reports of behavioral changes. The results are discussed in the context of other studies of EEG biofeedbackalso showing improved intelligence following EEG biofeedback.

The current choice of treatment for the remediation of attentional and behavioral difficulties among primary school children withspecial educational needs (SEN) is, increasingly, pharmacological. 

If-neurofeedback can regulate brain arousal states and thereby improve attention, behavior and readiness to learn, there may be a case for incorporating it into the special needs provision ofmainstream primary schools, thus avoiding the use of potentially damaging stimulant medication as a means of controlling behavior and promoting inclusion. 

An experimental design was used, employing the TOVA test as a pre-/post-test measure ofattention and the TOVA rating scale as parental pre/post measure of behavior, plus qualitative feedback as a post-treatment measure of attention/behavior.

Results indicate that neurofeedback may make an important impact on emotions and affect of the SEN individual, leading to improved behavior and improved attentional capability; quality time spent on a no-failure task of any kind on a one-to-one basis may be beneficial to children with SEN, affecting their personal belief system and behavior; incorporatingneurofeedback as part of the school-based special needs provision is feasible and practicable

Clinical trials have suggested that neurofeedback may be efficient in treating attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 

We compared the effects of a 3-month electroencephalographic feedback program providing reinforcement contingent on the production of cortical sensorimotor rhythm (12–15 Hz) and beta1 activity (15–18 Hz) with stimulant medication.Participants were N = 34 children aged 8–12 years, 22 of which were assigned to the neurofeedback group and 12 to themethylphenidate group according to their parents' preference.

Both neurofeedback and methylphenidate were associated with improvements on all subscales of the Test of Variables of Attention, and on the speed and accuracy measures of the d2 AttentionEndurance Test.

Furthermore, behaviors related to the disorder were rated as significantly reduced in both groups by both teachers and parents on the IOWA-Conners Behavior Rating Scale. These findings suggest that neurofeedback was efficient inimproving some of the behavioral concomitants of ADHD in children whose parents favored a non-pharmacological treatment.

Though it had already been shown in the 1970s that neurofeedback improves attention, academic performance and social behaviorin children with ADHD, it has not been considered as a standard therapy so far. 

This is mainly due to the small number of controlled studies fulfilling methodological standards - especially long-term data was not available so far. 

We are the first to presentlong term data of children undergoing neurofeedback training. 47 patients in the age of 8 – 12 years were randomly assigned to two different training groups. One group was trained to self-regulate slow cortical potentials (SCP), the other group tried to influence Theta- and Beta-amplitudes.

Follow-up evaluation was carried out 6 months and more than 2 years after the last training session. Eleven children of the SCP group and 12 CHildren of the Theta/Beta group took part in three booster sessions. Parents rated behavioral symptoms as well as frequency and impact of problems. Attention was measured with the Testbatterie zur Aufmerksamkeitsprüfung (TAP).

All improvements in behavior and attention that had been observed at previous assessmentsturned out to be stable. Yet another significant reduction of number of problems and significant improvement in attention wasobserved. EEG-self regulation skills were preserved. In each group, half of the children no longer met ADHD criteria.Neurofeedback appears to be an alternative or complement to traditional treatments. 

The stability of changes might be explained by normalizing of brain functions that are responsible for inhibitory control, impulsivity and hyperactivity.

Neurofeedback is a computer-based behavior training, which is gaining increasing interest in the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 

This article gives an introduction to neurofeedback and summarizes the state of research, discussing inter alia methodical aspects (e. g., requirements to a control training). Evaluation studies conducted so far indicate clinical efficacy. Forexample, neurofeedback training was superior to a computerized attention training in a randomized controlled trial (medium effect size).

Follow up investigations suggest that treatment effects remain stable (at least six months). At the clinical level, comparable improvements could be obtained for the neurofeedback protocols theta/beta training and training of slow corticalpotentials. 

Neurophysiological findings document different mechanisms of theta/beta training and slow cortical potential training Future studies should further elucidate the specificity of training effects related to the kind of training and certain disorders and address how to optimize and individualize neurofeedbacktraining.

The main objective of this structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study was to investigate, using diffusion tensor imaging, whether a neurofeedback training (NFT) protocol designed to improve sustained attention might induce structural changes in white matter (WM) pathways, purportedly implicated in this cognitive ability.

Another goal was to examine whether gray matter (GM) volume (GMV) might be altered following NFT in frontal and parietal cortical areas connected by these WM fiber pathways. Healthy university students were randomly assigned to an experimental group (EXP), a sham group, or a control group. Participants in the EXP group were trained to enhance the amplitude of their β1 waves at F4 and P4.

Measures of attentional performance and MRI data were acquired one week before (Time 1) and one week after (Time 2) NFT. Higher scores on visual and auditory sustained attention were noted in the EXP group at Time 2 (relative to Time 1). As for structural MRI data, increased fractional anisotropy was measured in WM pathways implicated in sustained attention, and GMV increases were detected in cerebral structures involved in this type of attention.

After 50 years of research in the field of neurofeedback, our study constitutes the first empirical demonstration that NFT can lead to microstructural changes in white and gray matter.

EEG biofeedback (neurofeedback) originated in the late 1960s as a method for retraining brainwave patterns through operant conditioning. Since that time asizable body of research has accumulated on the effectiveness of neurofeedback in the treatment of uncontrolled epilepsy, ADD/ADHD, anxiety, alcoholism, posttraumatic stress disorder, and mild head injuries.

Studies also provide encouraging indications that neurofeedback offers a treatment alternative for use with learning disabilities, stroke, depression, fibromyalgia,autism, insomnia, tinnitus, headaches, problems with physical balance, and for the enhancement of peak performance.

At a time when an increasing number of people are concerned with negative effects from relying solely on medication treatments,neurofeedback may offer an additional treatment alternative for many conditions. 

This article assists the reader to understand how neurofeedback works, how assessment allows neurofeedback to be individualized, and briefly reviews evidence for theneurofeedback treatment of many conditions. 

The public is cautioned that in selecting a practitioner for the treatment of the kindsof medical, psychiatric and psychological conditions cited above, a practitioner should be licensed for independent practice in theirstate or province and should ideally also be certified by a legitimately recognized body

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This is a case report of an adult female patient with ADHD, temporal seizure disorder, and Borderline Personality Disorder treated with 30 weekly sessions of SMR neurofeedback and carbamazepine. Posttreatment measures showed improvements in T.O.V.A., self report, and QEEG. Both neurofeedback and carbamazepine showed the most effect in early treatment. Progress continued after discontinuance of the drug.

Background: Neurofeedback studies have been criticized for including small numbers of subjects. The effect of SMR-beta neuro-feedback training on the Test of Variables of Attention was evaluated in more than 1,000 subjects from thirty-two clinics.

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Methods: 1089 subjects (726 children, 324 females, 186 with ADHD or ADD diagnoses) underwent twenty or more sessions of SMR-beta neurofeedback training for attentional and behavioral complaints at thirty-two clinical settings affiliated with EEG Spectrum, Inc. Subjects were evaluated prior to training and at training completion. One hundred and fifty-seven subjects who elected extensive training (forty sessions or more) were tested after both twenty and forty training sessions.

Results: Neurofeedback training produced significant improvement in attentiveness, impulse control, and response variability. Significant clinical improvement in one or more measures was seen in eighty-five percent of those subjects with moderate pre-training deficits.

Conclusions: Neurofeedback training is effective in remediating atten-tional dysfunction. Nevertheless, large-scale studies with greater control (e.g., wait-list designs) are sorely needed.

Behavioral and cognitive improvements in children with ADHD have been consistently reported after neurofeedback-treatment. However, neurofeedback has not been commonly accepted as a treatment for ADHD.

This study addresses previous methodological shortcomings while comparing a neurofeedback-training of Theta-Beta frequencies and training of slow cortical potentials (SCPs). The study aimed at answering (a) whether patients were able to demonstrate learning of cortical self-regulation, (b) if treatment leads to an improvement in cognition and behavior and (c) if the two experimental groups differ in cognitive and behavioral outcome variables.

SCP participants were trained to produce positive and negative SCP-shifts while the Theta/Beta participants were trained to suppress Theta (4–8 Hz) while increasing Beta (12–20 Hz). Participants were blind to group assignment. Assessment included potentially confounding variables. Each group was comprised of 19 children with ADHD (aged 8–13 years).

The treatment procedure consisted of three phases of 10 sessions each. Both groups were able to intentionally regulate cortical activity and improved in attention and IQ. Parents and teachers reported significant behavioral and cognitive improvements. Clinical effects for both groups remained stable six months after treatment. Groups did not differ in behavioural or cognitive outcome.

In the current study we sought to dissociate the component processes of working memory (WM) (vigilance, encoding and maintenance) that may be differentially impaired in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

We collected electroencephalographic (EEG) data from 52 children with ADHD and 47 typically developing (TD) children, ages 7–14 years, while they performed a spatial Sternberg working memory task. We used independent component analysis and time-frequency analysis to identify midoccipital alpha (8–12 Hz) to evaluate encoding processes and frontal midline theta (4–7 Hz) to evaluate maintenance processes.

We tested for effects of task difficulty and cue processing to evaluate vigilance. Children with ADHD showed attenuated alpha band event-related desynchronization (ERD) during encoding. This effect was more pronounced when task difficulty was low (consistent with impaired vigilance) and was predictive of memory task performance and symptom severity.

Correlated with alpha ERD during encoding were alpha power increases during the maintenance period (relative to baseline), suggesting a compensatory effort. Consistent with this interpretation, midfrontal theta power increases during maintenance were stronger in ADHD and in high-load memory conditions. Furthermore, children with ADHD exhibited a maturational lag in development of posterior alpha power whereas age-related changes in frontal theta power deviated from the TD pattern. Last, subjects with ADHD showed age-independent attenuation of evoked responses to warning cues, suggesting low vigilance.

Combined, these three EEG measures predicted diagnosis with 70% accuracy. We conclude that the interplay of impaired vigilance and encoding in ADHD may compromise maintenance and lead to impaired WM performance in this group.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder mainly characterized by impairments in cognitive functions.

Functional neuroimaging studies carried out in individuals with AD/HD have shown abnormal functioning of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) during tasks involving selective attention. In other respects, there is mounting evidence that neurofeedback training (NFT) can significantly improve cognitive functioning in AD/HD children.

In this context, the present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study was conducted to measure the effect of NFT on the neural substrates of selective attention in children with AD/HD.

Twenty AD/HD children—not taking any psychostimulant and without co-morbidity-participated to the study. Fifteen children were randomly assigned to the Experimental (EXP) group (NFT), whereas the other five children were assigned to the Control (CON) group (no NFT). Subjects from both groups were scanned 1 week before the beginning of the NFT (Time 1) and 1 week after the end of this training (Time 2), while they performed a Counting Stroop task.

At Time 1, for both groups, the Counting Stroop task was associated with significant loci of activation in the left superior parietal lobule. No activation was noted in the ACC. At Time 2, for both groups, the Counting Stroop task was still associated with significant activation of the left superior parietal lobule. This time, however, for the EXP group only there was a significant activation of the right ACC.

These results suggest that in AD/HD children, NFT has the capacity to normalize the functioning of the ACC, the key neural substrate of selective attention.

Eighteen children with ADD/ADHD, some of whom were also LD, ranging in ages from 5 through 15 were randomly assigned to one of two conditions. The experimental condition consisted of 40 45-minute sessions of training in enhancing beta activity and suppressing theta activity, spaced over 6 months. The control condition, waiting list group, received no EEG biofeedback. No other psychological treatment or medication was administered to any subjects.

All subjects were measured at pretreatment and at posttreatment on an IQ test and parent behavior rating scales for inattention, hyperactivity, and aggressive/defiant (oppositional) behaviors. At posttreatment the experimental group demonstrated a significant increase (mean of 9 points) on the K-Bit IQ Composite as compared to the control group (p<.05).

The experimental group also significantly reduced inattentive behaviors as rated by parents (p<.05). The significant improvements in intellectual functioning and attentive behaviors might be explained as a result of the attentional enhancement affected by EEG biofeedback training.

Further research utilizing improved data collection and analysis, more stringent control groups, and larger sample sizes are needed to support and replicate these findings.

Objective: The aim of this paper was to review all randomized published trials and unpublished conference presentations on the neurofeedback (NF) treatment of pediatric ADHD, and their relevance, strengths, and limitations. 

Method: Via PsychInfo and Medline searches and contacts with NF researchers 14 studies were identified and reviewed. Results: The majority were conducted from 1994 to 2010, with 5- to 15-year-olds, usually male and White with the combined type of ADHD.

Most studies used theta/beta NF with a unipolar-electrode placement at Cz and demonstrated, where reported, an overall ADHD mean effect size of d = 0.69, a medium effect. Main study strengths, within some studies, include use of randomization, treatment control conditions, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria, evidence-based assessment of ADHD, standard treatment outcome measures, multidomain assessment, and, for some studies, moderate sample size, some type of blind and the identification of medication as a concomitant treatment.

Main study limitations (and directions for future research) include the lack of adequate blinding of participants, raters and NF trainers, a sham-NF/blinded control treatment condition, posttreatment follow-up, generalizability, specific details about delivery of NF, identification and control of comorbidity, and the identification, measurement, and control of concomitant treatments and potential side effects. 

Conclusion: Based on the results and methodologies of published studies, this review concludes that NF for pediatric ADHD can be currently considered as “probably efficacious.”

Electrophysiological measures were among the first to be used to study brain processes in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders [4th ed.], American Psychiatric Association, 1994) and have been used as such for over 30 years (see Hastings & Barkley, 1978, for an early review).

More recently, electroencephalography (EEG) has been used both in research to describe and quantify the underlying neurophysiology of ADHD, but also clinically in the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of ADHD.

This review will first provide a brief overview of EEG and then present some of the research findings of EEG correlates in ADHD. Then, the utility of EEG in making an ADHD diagnosis and predicting stimulant response will be examined.

Finally, and more controversially, we will review the results of the most recent studies on EEG biofeedback (neurofeedback) as a treatment for ADHD and the issues that remain to be addressed in the research examining the efficacy this therapeutic approach.

Six children were provided with long-term biofeedback and academic treatment for attention deficit disorders. Their symptoms were primarily specific learning disabilities, and, in some cases, there were varying degrees of hyperkinesis.

The training consisted of two sessions per week for 10 to 27 months, with a gradual phase-out. Feedback was provided for either increasing 12-to 15-Hz SMR or 16- to 20-Hz beta activity. Inhibit circuits were employed for blocking the SMR or beta when either gross movement, excessive EMG, or theta (4–8 Hz) activity was present.

Treatment also consisted of combining the biofeedback with academic training, including reading, arithmetic, and spatial tasks to improve their attention.

All children increased SMR or beta and decreased slow EEG and EMG activity. Changes could be seen in their power spectra after training in terms of increased beta and decreased slow activity. All six children demonstrated considerable improvement in their schoolwork in terms of grades or achievement test scores. None of the children are currently on any medications for hyperkinetic behavior.

The results indicate that EEG biofeedback training, if applied comprehensively, can be highly effective in helping to remediate children who are experiencing attention deficit disorders.

A study with three component parts was performed to assess the effectiveness of neurofeedback treatment for Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

The subject pool consisted of 23 children and adolescents ranging in age from 8 to 19 years with a mean of 11.4 years who participated in a 2-to 3-month summer program of intensive neurofeedback training. Feedback was contingent on the production of 16–20 hertz (beta) activity in the absence of 4–8 hertz (theta) activity. Posttraining changes in EEG activity, T.O.V.A. performance, (ADDES) behavior ratings, and WISC-R performance were assessed.

Part I indicated that subjects who successfully decreased theta activity showed significant improvement in T.O.V.A. performance; Part II revealed significant improvement in parent ratings following neurofeedback training; and Part III indicated significant increases in WISC-R scores following neurofeedback training.

This study is significant in that it examines the effects of neurofeedback training on both objective and subjective measures under relatively controlled conditions. Our findings corroborate and extend previous research, indicating that neurofeedback training can be an appropriate and efficacious treatment for children with ADHD.

One hundred children, ages 6–19, who were diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), either inattentive or combined types, participated in a study examining the effects of Ritalin, EEG biofeedback, and parenting style on the primary symptoms of ADHD.

All of the patients participated in a 1-year, multimodal, outpatient program that included Ritalin, parent counseling, and academic support at school (either a 504 Plan or an IEP). Fifty-one of the participants also received EEG biofeedback therapy.

Post treatment assessments were conducted both with and without stimulant therapy. Significant improvement was noted on the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA; L. M. Greenberg, 1996) and the Attention Deficit Disorders Evaluation Scale (ADDES; S. B. McCarney, 1995) when participants were tested while using Ritalin.

However, only those who had received EEG biofeedback sustained these gains when tested without Ritalin. The results of a Quantitative Electroencephalographic Scanning Process (QEEG-Scan; V. J. Monastra et al., 1999) revealed significant reduction in cortical slowing only in patients who had received EEG biofeedback.

Behavioral measures indicated that parenting style exerted a significant moderating effect on the expression of behavioral symptoms at home but not at school.

College students diagnosed as free of anyneurological or attention deficit disorder received EEG biofeedback to enhance beta (16-22 HZ) activity while simultaneously inhibiting high theta and low alpha (6-10 Hz) activity in order to evaluate improvements in attentional measurers.

Following short-term treatment (mean number of sessions = 20), subjects were evaluated as either learners or non-learners based uponstandard pre- and post-treatment neurofeedback measurers.

Attention quotients taken from pre- and post treatment measurements using the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA) identified significant improvements in attentional measures in learners, while non-learners showed no significant improvements.

Results suggest that some “normal”young adults can learn to increase EEG activity associated with improved attention. Twenty sessions, however, even for this population may represent the lower limit for achieving significant improvement.

In this research, the effectiveness of neurofeedback, along with virtual reality (VR), in reducing the level of inattention and impulsiveness was investigated.

Twenty-eight male participants, aged 14–18, with social problems, took part in this study. They were separated into three groups: a control group, a VR group, and a non-VR group.

The VR and non-VR groups underwent eight sessions of neurofeedback training over 2 weeks, while the control group just waited during the same period.

The VR group used a head-mounted display (HMD) and a head tracker, which let them look around the virtual world. Conversely, the non-VR group used only a computer monitor with a fixed viewpoint. All participants performed a continuous performance task (CPT) before and after the complete training session.

The results showed that both the VR and non-VR groups achieved better scores in the CPT after the training session, while the control group showed no significant difference. Compared with the other groups, the VR group presented a tendency to get better results, suggesting that immersive VR is applicable to neurofeedback for the rehabilitation of inattention and impulsiveness.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate sustained improvements 6 months after a 40-session, in-school computer attention training intervention using neurofeedback or cognitive training (CT) administered to 7- to 11-year-olds with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

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METHODS: One hundred four children were randomly assigned to receive neurofeedback, CT, or a control condition and were evaluated 6 months postintervention. A 3-point growth model assessed change over time across the conditions on the Conners 3–Parent Assessment Report (Conners 3-P), the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Parent Form (BRIEF), and a systematic double-blinded classroom observation (Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools). Analysis of variance assessed community-initiated changes in stimulant medication.

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RESULTS: Parent response rates were 90% at the 6-month follow-up. Six months postintervention, neurofeedback participants maintained significant gains on Conners 3-P (Inattention effect size [ES] = 0.34, Executive Functioning ES = 0.25, Hyperactivity/Impulsivity ES = 0.23) and BRIEF subscales including the Global Executive Composite (ES = 0.31), which remained significantly greater than gains found among children in CT and control conditions. Children in the CT condition showed delayed improvement over immediate postintervention ratings only on Conners 3-P Executive Functioning (ES = 0.18) and 2 BRIEF subscales. At the 6-month follow-up, neurofeedback participants maintained the same stimulant medication dosage, whereas participants in both CT and control conditions showed statistically and clinically significant increases (9 mg [P = .002] and 13 mg [P < .001], respectively).

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CONCLUSIONS: Neurofeedback participants made more prompt and greater improvements in ADHD symptoms, which were sustained at the 6-month follow-up, than did CT participants or those in the control group. This finding suggests that neurofeedback is a promising attention training treatment for children with ADHD.

Objective: 

To evaluate the efficacy of 2 computer attention training systems administered in school for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Method: 

Children in second and fourth grade with a diagnosis of ADHD (n = 104) were randomly assigned to neurofeedback (NF) (n = 34), cognitive training (CT) (n = 34), or control (n = 36) conditions. A 2-point growth model assessed change from pre-post intervention on parent reports (Conners 3-Parent [Conners 3-P]; Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function [BRIEF] rating scale), teacher reports (Swanson, Kotkin, Agler, M-Flynn and Pelham scale [SKAMP]; Conners 3-Teacher [Conners 3-T]), and systematic classroom observations (Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools [BOSS]). Paired t tests and an analysis of covariance assessed change in medication.

Results: 

Children who received NF showed significant improvement compared with those in the control condition on the Conners 3-P Attention, Executive Functioning and Global Index, on all BRIEF summary indices, and on BOSS motor/verbal off-task behavior. Children who received CT showed no improvement compared to the control condition. Children in the NF condition showed significant improvements compared to those in the CT condition on Conners 3-P Executive Functioning, all BRIEF summary indices, SKAMP Attention, and Conners 3-T Inattention subscales. Stimulant medication dosage in methylphenidate equivalencies significantly increased for children in the CT (8.54 mg) and control (7.05 mg) conditions but not for those in the NF condition (0.29 mg).

Conclusion: 

Neurofeedback made greater improvements in ADHD symptoms compared to both the control and CT conditions. Thus, NF is a promising attention training treatment intervention for children with ADHD.

OBJECTIVE. We investigated the effects of self-regulation of slow cortical potentials for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Slow cortical potentials are slow event-related direct-current shifts of the electroencephalogram. Slow cortical potential shifts in the electrical negative direction reflect the depolarization of large cortical cell assemblies, reducing their excitation threshold. This training aims at regulation of cortical excitation thresholds considered to be impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Electroencephalographic data from the training and the 6-month follow-up are reported, as are changes in behavior and cognition.

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METHOD. Twenty-three children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder aged between 8 and 13 years received 30 sessions of self-regulation training of slow cortical potentials in 3 phases of 10 sessions each. Increasing and decreasing slow cortical potentials at central brain regions was fed back visually and auditorily. Transfer trials without feedback were intermixed with feedback trials to allow generalization to everyday-life situations. In addition to the neurofeedback sessions, children exercised during the third training phase to apply the self-regulation strategy while doing their homework.

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RESULTS. For the first time, electroencephalographic data during the course of slow cortical potential neurofeedback are reported. Measurement before and after the trials showed that children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder learn to regulate negative slow cortical potentials. After training, significant improvement in behavior, attention, and IQ score was observed. The behavior ratings included Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorderscriteria, number of problems, and social behavior at school and were conducted by parents and teachers. The cognitive variables were assessed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children and with a computerized test battery that measures several components of attention. All changes proved to be stable at 6 months' follow-up after the end of training. Clinical outcome was predicted by the ability to produce negative potential shifts in transfer sessions without feedback.

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CONCLUSIONS. According to the guidelines of the efficacy of treatments, the evidence of the efficacy of slow cortical potential feedback found in this study reaches level 2: “possibly efficacious.” In the absence of a control group, no causal relationship between observed improvements and the ability to regulate brain activity can be made. However, it could be shown for the first time that good performance in self-regulation predicts clinical outcome. “Good performance” was defined as the ability to produce negative potential shifts in trials without feedback, because it is known that the ability to self-regulate without feedback is impaired in children and adults with attention problems. Additional research should focus on the control of unspecific effects, medication, and subtypes to confirm the assumption that slow cortical potential feedback is a viable treatment option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Regulation of slow cortical potentials may involve similar neurobiological pathways as medical treatment. It is suggested that regulation of frontocentral negative slow cortical potentials affects the cholinergic-dopaminergic balance and allows children to adapt to task requirements more flexibly.

Neurofeedback (NF) is being successfully applied, among others, in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and as a peak performance training in healthy subjects. However, the neuronal mechanisms mediating a successful NF training have not yet been sufficiently uncovered for both theta/beta (T/B), and slow cortical potential (SCP) training, two protocols established in NF in ADHD.

In the present, randomized, controlled investigation in adults without a clinical diagnosis (n = 59), the specificity of the effects of these two NF protocols on attentional processes and motor system excitability were to be examined, focusing on the underlying neuronal mechanisms.

Neurofeedback training consisted of 10 double sessions, and self-regulation skills were analyzed. Pre- and post-training assessments encompassed performance and event-related potential measures during an attention task, and motor system excitability assessed by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Some NF protocol-specific effects have been obtained.

However, due to the limited sample size medium effects did not reach the level of significance. Self-regulation abilities during negativity trials of the SCP training were associated with increased contingent negative variation amplitudes, indicating improved resource allocation during cognitive preparation.

Theta/beta training was associated with increased response speed and decreased target-P3 amplitudes after successful theta/beta regulation suggested reduced attentional resources necessary for stimulus evaluation.

Motor system excitability effects after theta/beta training paralleled the effects of methylphenidate. Overall, our results are limited by the non-sufficiently acquired self-regulation skills, but some specific effects between good and poor learners could be described.

Future studies with larger sample sizes and sufficient acquisition of self-regulation skills are needed to further evaluate the protocol-specific effects on attention and motor system excitability reported.

Eight boys, ages 7 years 11 months to 15 years 3 months, were provided withlong-term—symptom duration—sensorimotor rhythm biofeedback training for the remediation of their learning disabilities. Concurrently, the simultaneous recording of five frequency bands of brainwave activity (5 Hz, 7 Hz, 10 Hz, 12 Hz and 14 Hz), from one active electrode equidistant from reference and ground, was intended to provide a glimpse of the ‘brainwave signature’ reflective of the dynamic and synergistic processes involved in such cerebro-neural activation and the brain's global response to such an alteration in the sensorimotor subnetwork.

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Overall, the main effect of this procedure, for the biofeedback and subsequent conditioning of increased 14 Hz neural discharge patterns over the central Rolandic cortex in a clinical office setting, seems to be increase bilateral sensorimotor transactions resulting in substantive remediation of the learning disabilities of the recipients of such training—by way of internally exercising of, and/or recruitment of additional neural activation within, the sensorimotorsubnetwork/matrix.

Observation of the changing brainwave signatures showed a tendency for decreased slow were activity concommitant with increases in fast wave activity, for cases with a Full Scale I.Q. within the range of 76 and 85; with those cases with a Full Scale I.Q. within the range of 102 and 116 exhibiting increased amplitudes over most of the monitored bands, but with the increases being much less at the slower frequencies.

It is noteworthy that those four subjects with either a significant Verbal greater than Performance, or Performance greater than Verbal, I.Q. Score discrepancy exhibited no less than a 40% greater increase in the lower of the two I.Q. scores; indicating that this SMR training procedure also resulted in an increased symmetry in the interhemispheric interactions reflective of the higher cortical functions for these no longer learning disabled boys.

Ten years ago, the first successful application of a clinical,private-practice based, EEG 14-Hz biofeedback training regimen for the treatment of learning disorders was performed by the author.

After the 10-year-old boy, with presenting symptomology including a developmental reading disorder, hyperactivity, and an educational classification of perceptually impaired, continued symptom free for a period oftwo years, his case was submitted for publication.

Ten years after his termination from successful treatment, his ongoingly normal social and academic functioning is noted and his EEG brainwave signature examined and compared with a population of 24 “used-to-be” learning disabled, one-half of which had a pretreatment state including the educational classification of perceptually impaired.

This 10-year follow-up confirms the long-term stability of the results of this EEG 14-Hz biofeedback regimen. Current findings on recent medical research identifying a major cerebral locus of dysfunction for hyperkinesis and how it supports the electrode placements of this clinical office setting regimen is also discussed.

The serial application of electromyographic (EMG) and sensorimotor (SMR) biofeedback training was attempted with a 10-year-old boy presenting a triad of symptoms: an attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity, developmental reading disorder, and ocular instability.

Symptom elimination was achieved, for all three aspects of the triad, following the procedure of first conditioning a decrease in EMG-monitored muscle tension and then conditioning increases in the amplitude of sensorimotor rhythm over the Rolandic cortex.

The learned reduction of monitored EMG levels was accompanied by a reduction in the child's motoric activity level to below that which had been achieved by past administration of Ritalin. In addition, the attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity was no longer diagnosable following the EMG biofeedback training.

The learned increase in the amplitude of monitored SMR was accompanied by remediation of the developmental reading disorder and the ocular instability. These results remained unchanged, as ascertained by follow-ups conducted over a 24-month period subsequent to the termination of biofeedback training.

A review of records was carried out to examine the results obtained when people with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) received 40 sessions of training that combined neurofeedback with the teaching of metacognitive strategies. While not a controlled scientific study, the results, including pre- and post-measures, are consistent with previously published research concerning the use of neurofeedback with children.

A significant addition is that a description of procedures is included. The 111 subjects, 98 children (age 5 to 17) and 13 adults (ages 18 to 63), attended forty 50-min sessions, usually twice a week. Feedback was contingent on decreasing slow wave activity (usually 4–7 Hz, occasionally 9–11 Hz) and increasing fast wave activity (15–18 Hz for most subjects but initially 13–15 Hz for subjects with impulsivity and hyperactivity). Metacognitive strategies related to academic tasks were taught when the feedback indicated the client was focused. Some clients also received temperature and/or EDR biofeedback during some sessions.

Initially, 30 percent of the children were taking stimulant medications (Ritalin), whereas 6 percent were on stimulant medications after 40 sessions. All charts were included where pre- and post-testing results were available for one or more of the following: the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA, n=76), Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WISC-R, WISC-III, or WA1S-R, n=68), Wide Range Achievement Test (WRAT 3, n=99), and the electroencephalogram assessment (QEEG) providing a ratio of theta (4–8 Hz) to beta (16–20 Hz) activity (n=66).

Significant improvements (p<.001) were found in ADD symptoms (inattention, impulsivity, and variability of response times on the TOVA), in both the ACID pattern and the full-scale scores of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales, and in academic performance on the WRAT 3.

The average gain for the full scale IQ equivalent score was 12 points. A decrease in the EEG ratio of theta/beta was also observed. These data are important because they provide an extension of results from earlier studies (Lubar, Swartwood, Swartwood, & O'Donnell, 1995; Linden, Habib, & Radojevic, 1996).

They also demonstrate that systematic data collection in a private educational setting produces helpful information that can be used to monitor students' progress and improve programs. Because this clinical work is not a controlled scientific study, the efficacious treatment components cannot be determined.

Nevertheless, the positive outcomes of decreased ADD symptoms plus improved academic and intellectual functioning suggest that the use of neurofeedback plus training in metacognitive strategies is a useful combined intervention for students with ADD. Further controlled research is warranted.

Introduction: Neurofeedback is an alternative treatment for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), but its efficacy is unknown. This narrative review examines rigorous studies conducted utilizing neurofeedback as a treatment for ADHD.

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Methods: Studies were located by searching the Web of Science and PsycINFO databases with the keywords ADHD or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder AND neurofeedback or EEG biofeedback or electroencephalogram biofeedback. Located studies were chosen for initial review if they met the following criteria: (a) randomized controlled trial or quasi-experiment, (b) ADHD diagnosis based on DSM criteria, (c) published at any time prior to March 2010, (d) English language, and (e) published in a peer-reviewed journal. Participants included children, adolescents, and adults diagnosed with ADHD.

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Results: Twelve articles reporting 9 different studies met the eligibility criteria and were included in the review. All 9 studies produced results that indicated significant improvements on either tests scores or behavioral conduct for individuals who were treated with neurofeedback for ADHD. Alternative treatments also demonstrated effectiveness.

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Conclusion: Neurofeedback may be an effective treatment for ADHD. Future research is needed with larger sample sizes, comparing the efficacy of neurofeedback with the efficacy of other ADHD treatments and comparing different neurofeedback protocols.

The use of neurofeedback as an operant conditioning paradigm has disclosed that participants are able to gain some control over particular aspects of their electroencephalogram (EEG).

Based on the association between theta activity (4–7 Hz) and working memory performance, and sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) activity (12–15 Hz) and attentional processing, we investigated the possibility that training healthy individuals to enhance either of these frequencies would specifically influence a particular aspect of cognitive performance, relative to a non-neurofeedback control-group.

The results revealed that after eight sessions of neurofeedback the SMR-group were able to selectively enhance their SMR activity, as indexed by increased SMR/theta and SMR/beta ratios. In contrast, those trained to selectively enhance theta activity failed to exhibit any changes in their EEG.

Furthermore, the SMR-group exhibited a significant and clear improvement in cued recall performance, using a semantic working memory task, and to a lesser extent showed improved accuracy of focused attentional processing using a 2-sequence continuous performance task.

This suggests that normal healthy individuals can learn to increase a specific component of their EEG activity, and that such enhanced activity may facilitate semantic processing in a working memory task and to a lesser extent focused attention. We discuss possible mechanisms that could mediate such effects and indicate a number of directions for future research.

Dyslexia is a common and important problem in all industrial societies, with a prevalence rate of five to ten percent, for which no consistently effective treatment is available.

Recent advances in imaging (morphometric MRI, functional MRI, PET, regional cerebral blood flow), as well as in neurophysiology (evoked potentials, QEEG, event-related desynchronization, coherence studies, magnetic source imaging, reading difference topography) have clarified our understanding of the normal circuitry involved in reading and differences seen in individuals who have trouble learning to read.

These studies have important implications for the use of neurofeedback to help dyslexic individuals learn to read more easily. First, we obtain a QEEG and a reading difference topograph. We then train down any abnormalities that are significantly increased and train up any abnormalities that are significantly decreased. Increasing 16–18 Hz activity at T3 (left mid-temporal area) has also proved quite helpful in improving reading speed and comprehension.

These combined approaches have been helpful in all cases of dyslexia we have treated, dramatically so in some cases. Each of the 12 individuals treated improved by at least two grade levels after 30 to 35 sessions.

In order to study the treatment of the children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the integrated visual and auditory continuous performance test (IVA-CPT) was clinically applied to evaluate the effectiveness of electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback training.

Of all the 60 children with ADHD aged more than 6 years, the effective rate of EEG biofeedback training was 91.6% after 40 sessions of EEG biofeedback training.

Before and after treatment by EEG biofeedback training, the overall indexes of IVA were significantly improved among predominately inattentive, hyperactive, and combined subtype of children with ADHD (P<0.001).

It was suggested that EEG biofeedback training was an effective and vital treatment on children with ADHD.